ZyXEL NWA-3160 User guide

www.zyxel.com

NWA-3160 Series

Models: NWA-3160 & NWA-3163

ZyXEL Communications Corporation

Firmware Version 3.7

Edition 2, 03/2009

Default Login Details

IP Address http://192.168.1.2

User Name

Password 1234

About This User's Guide

NWA-3160 Series User’s Guide

3

About This User's Guide

Intended Audience

This manual is intended for people who want to configure the NWA-3160 Series

using the web configurator. You should have at least a basic knowledge of TCP/IP

networking concepts and topology.

Related Documentation

•Quick Start Guide

The Quick Start Guide is designed to help you get up and running right away. It

contains information on setting up your network and configuring for Internet

access.

• Support Disc

Refer to the included CD for support documents.

• ZyXEL Web Site

Please refer to www.zyxel.com

for additional support documentation and

product certifications.

User Guide Feedback

Help us help you. Send all User Guide-related comments, questions or suggestions

for improvement to the following address, or use e-mail instead. Thank you!

The Technical Writing Team,

ZyXEL Communications Corp.,

6 Innovation Road II,

Science-Based Industrial Park,

Hsinchu, 300, Taiwan.

E-mail: [email protected]om.tw

Document Conventions

NWA-3160 Series User’s Guide

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Document Conventions

Warnings and Notes

These are how warnings and notes are shown in this User’s Guide.

Warnings tell you about things that could harm you or your

device.

Note: Notes tell you other important information (for example, other things you may

need to configure or helpful tips) or recommendations.

Syntax Conventions

• The products in the NWA-3160 Series may be referred to as the “NWA”, the

“device” or the “system” in this User’s Guide.

Note: The NWA-3160 Series includes the NWA-3160 and the NWA-3163. Illustrations

used throughout this book are based on the NWA-3163.

• Product labels, screen names, field labels and field choices are all in bold font.

• A key stroke is denoted by square brackets and uppercase text, for example,

[ENTER] means the “enter” or “return” key on your keyboard.

• “Enter” means for you to type one or more characters and then press the

[ENTER] key. “Select” or “choose” means for you to use one of the predefined

choices.

• A right angle bracket ( > ) within a screen name denotes a mouse click. For

example, Maintenance > Status > Show Statistics means you first click

Maintenance in the navigation panel, then the Status sub menu and finally

the Show Statistics button to get to that screen.

• Units of measurement may denote the “metric” value or the “scientific” value.

For example, “k” for kilo may denote “1000” or “1024”, “M” for mega may

denote “1000000” or “1048576” and so on.

• “e.g.,” is a shorthand for “for instance”, and “i.e.,” means “that is” or “in other

words”.

• Screens reproduced here for demonstration purposes may not exactly match

the screens on your device.

Document Conventions

NWA-3160 Series User’s Guide

5

Icons Used in Figures

Figures in this User’s Guide may use the following generic icons. The NWA icon is

not an exact representation of your device.

NWA Computer Notebook computer

Server Printer Firewall

Telephone Switch Router

Safety Warnings

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Safety Warnings

• Do NOT use this product near water, for example, in a wet basement or near a swimming

pool.

• Do NOT expose your device to dampness, dust or corrosive liquids.

• Do NOT store things on the device.

• Do NOT install, use, or service this device during a thunderstorm. There is a remote risk

of electric shock from lightning.

• Connect ONLY suitable accessories to the device.

• ONLY qualified service personnel should service or disassemble this device.

• Make sure to connect the cables to the correct ports.

• Place connecting cables carefully so that no one will step on them or stumble over them.

• Always disconnect all cables from this device before servicing or disassembling.

• Use ONLY an appropriate power adaptor or cord for your device.

• Connect the power adaptor or cord to the right supply voltage (for example, 110V AC in

North America or 230V AC in Europe).

• Do NOT allow anything to rest on the power adaptor or cord and do NOT place the

product where anyone can walk on the power adaptor or cord.

• Do NOT use the device if the power adaptor or cord is damaged as it might cause

electrocution.

• If the power adaptor or cord is damaged, remove it from the power outlet.

• Do NOT attempt to repair the power adaptor or cord. Contact your local vendor to order

a new one.

• Do not use the device outside, and make sure all the connections are indoors. There is a

remote risk of electric shock from lightning.

• Antenna Warning! This device meets ETSI and FCC certification requirements when using

the included antenna(s). Only use the included antenna(s).

• If you wall mount your device, make sure that no electrical lines, gas or water pipes will

be damaged.

• The PoE (Power over Ethernet) devices that supply or receive power and their connected

Ethernet cables must all be completely indoors.

This product is recyclable. Dispose of it properly.

Table of Contents

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Table of Contents

About This User's Guide..........................................................................................................3

Document Conventions............................................................................................................4

Safety Warnings........................................................................................................................6

Table of Contents......................................................................................................................7

Part I: Introduction................................................................................. 15

Chapter 1

Introduction.............................................................................................................................17

1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 17

1.2 Applications for the NWA ..................................................................................................... 18

1.2.1 Access Point ..............................................................................................................18

1.2.2 Bridge / Repeater ....................................................................................................... 19

1.2.2.1 Bridge / Repeater Mode Example ..................................................20

1.2.3 AP + Bridge ................................................................................................................ 22

1.2.4 MBSSID .....................................................................................................................22

1.2.5 Pre-Configured SSID Profiles .................................................................................... 24

1.2.6 Configuring Dual WLAN Adaptors .............................................................................. 24

1.3 CAPWAP ............................................................................................................................. 25

1.4 Ways to Manage the NWA ................................................................................................... 26

1.5 Good Habits for Managing the NWA ................................................................................... 26

1.6 Hardware Connections ........................................................................................................26

1.6.1 Antennas .................................................................................................................... 27

1.7 LEDs .................................................................................................................................... 28

Chapter 2

The Web Configurator............................................................................................................31

2.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 31

2.2 Accessing the Web Configurator ......................................................................................... 31

2.3 Resetting the NWA ..............................................................................................................32

2.3.1 Methods of Restoring Factory-Defaults ...................................................................... 32

2.4 Navigating the Web Configurator ......................................................................................... 33

Chapter 3

Tutorials...................................................................................................................................35

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3.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 35

3.2 How to Configure the Wireless LAN .................................................................................... 35

3.2.1 Choosing the Wireless Mode ..................................................................................... 35

3.2.2 Wireless LAN Configuration Overview ....................................................................... 36

3.2.3 Further Reading .........................................................................................................37

3.3 How to Configure Multiple Wireless Networks ..................................................................... 37

3.3.1 Change the Operating Mode ...................................................................................... 39

3.3.2 Configure the VoIP Network ....................................................................................... 41

3.3.2.1 Set Up Security for the VoIP Profile ................................................42

3.3.2.2 Activate the VoIP Profile .................................................................44

3.3.3 Configure the Guest Network ..................................................................................... 44

3.3.3.1 Set Up Security for the Guest Profile ..............................................46

3.3.3.2 Set up Layer 2 Isolation ..................................................................47

3.3.3.3 Activate the Guest Profile ...............................................................48

3.3.4 Testing the Wireless Networks ................................................................................... 48

3.4 How to Set Up and Use Rogue AP Detection ..................................................................... 49

3.4.1 Set Up and Save a Friendly AP list ............................................................................ 51

3.4.2 Activate Periodic Rogue AP Detection ....................................................................... 54

3.4.3 Set Up E-mail Logs .................................................................................................... 55

3.4.4 Configure Your Other Access Points .......................................................................... 56

3.4.5 Test the Setup ............................................................................................................57

3.5 Using MAC Filters and L-2 Isolation Profiles ....................................................................... 57

3.5.1 Scenario .....................................................................................................................57

3.5.2 Your Requirements ..................................................................................................... 58

3.5.3 Setup .......................................................................................................................... 58

3.5.4 Configure the SERVER_1 Network ............................................................................ 59

3.5.5 Configure the SERVER_2 Network ............................................................................ 62

3.5.6 Checking your Settings and Testing the Configuration .............................................. 63

3.5.6.1 Checking Settings ...........................................................................63

3.5.6.2 Testing the Configuration ................................................................64

3.6 How to Configure Management Modes ............................................................................... 65

3.6.1 Scenario ..................................................................................................................... 65

3.6.2 Your Requirements ..................................................................................................... 66

3.6.3 Setup .......................................................................................................................... 66

3.6.4 Configure Your NWA in Controller AP Mode .............................................................. 67

3.6.4.1 Secondary AP Controller ................................................................68

3.6.4.2 Primary AP Controller .....................................................................69

3.6.5 Setting Your NWA in Managed AP Mode ................................................................... 69

3.6.6 Configuring the Managed Access Points List ............................................................. 70

3.6.7 Checking your Settings and Testing the Configuration .............................................. 73

Part II: The Web Configurator............................................................... 75

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Chapter 4

Status Screen..........................................................................................................................77

4.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 77

4.2 The Status Screen ............................................................................................................... 77

Chapter 5

Management Mode..................................................................................................................81

5.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 81

5.2 About CAPWAP ................................................................................................................... 81

5.2.1 CAPWAP Discovery and Management ...................................................................... 82

5.2.2 CAPWAP and DHCP .................................................................................................. 82

5.2.3 CAPWAP and IP Subnets .......................................................................................... 82

5.2.4 Notes on CAPWAP .................................................................................................... 83

5.3 The Management Mode Screen .......................................................................................... 84

Chapter 6

AP Controller Mode ................................................................................................................87

6.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 87

6.1.1 What You Can Do in AP Controller Mode .................................................................. 87

6.1.2 What You Need to Know ............................................................................................ 87

6.1.3 Before You Begin ....................................................................................................... 88

6.2 Controller AP Navigation Menu ...........................................................................................88

6.3 Controller AP Status Screen ................................................................................................89

6.4 AP Lists Screen ................................................................................................................... 91

6.4.1 The AP Lists Edit Screen ........................................................................................... 93

6.5 Configuration Screen ........................................................................................................... 94

6.6 Redundancy Screen ............................................................................................................ 95

6.7 The Profile Edit Screens ...................................................................................................... 96

6.7.1 The Radio Profile Screen ........................................................................................... 96

6.7.2 The Radio Profile Edit Screen .................................................................................... 97

Chapter 7

System Screens....................................................................................................................101

7.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 101

7.1.1 What You Can Do in the System Screens ................................................................ 101

7.1.2 What You Need To Know About the System Screens .............................................. 102

7.2 General Screen ................................................................................................................. 103

7.3 Password Screen ..............................................................................................................105

7.4 Time Setting Screen ......................................................................................................... 107

7.5 Technical Reference .......................................................................................................... 109

7.5.1 Administrator Authentication on RADIUS ................................................................. 109

7.5.2 Pre-defined NTP Time Servers List .......................................................................... 109

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Chapter 8

Wireless Screen.................................................................................................................... 111

8.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................111

8.1.1 What You Can Do in the Wireless Screen .................................................................111

8.1.2 What You Need To Know About the Wireless Screen ...............................................112

8.2 The Wireless Screen ..........................................................................................................115

8.2.1 Access Point Mode ...................................................................................................115

8.2.2 Bridge / Repeater Mode ............................................................................................118

8.2.3 AP + Bridge Mode .................................................................................................... 122

8.2.4 MBSSID Mode ......................................................................................................... 123

8.3 Technical Reference .......................................................................................................... 126

8.3.1 WMM QoS ................................................................................................................ 126

8.3.1.1 WMM QoS Priorities .....................................................................127

8.3.2 ATC .......................................................................................................................... 127

8.3.3 ATC+WMM ............................................................................................................... 128

8.3.3.1 ATC+WMM from LAN to WLAN ....................................................128

8.3.3.2 ATC+WMM from WLAN to LAN ....................................................129

8.3.4 Type Of Service (ToS) .............................................................................................. 129

8.3.4.1 DiffServ .........................................................................................129

8.3.4.2 DSCP and Per-Hop Behavior .......................................................130

8.3.4.3 ToS (Type of Service) and WMM QoS ..........................................130

8.3.5 Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) ................................................................................. 131

8.3.5.1 Rapid STP ....................................................................................131

8.3.5.2 STP Terminology ..........................................................................131

8.3.5.3 How STP Works ...........................................................................132

8.3.5.4 STP Port States ............................................................................132

8.3.6 DFS ..........................................................................................................................132

8.3.7 Roaming ...................................................................................................................133

8.3.7.1 Requirements for Roaming ...........................................................134

8.3.8 Additional Wireless Terms ........................................................................................ 135

Chapter 9

SSID Screen...........................................................................................................................137

9.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 137

9.1.1 What You Can Do in the SSID Screen ..................................................................... 137

9.1.2 What You Need To Know About SSID ...................................................................... 138

9.2 The SSID Screen ............................................................................................................... 139

9.2.1 Configuring SSID ..................................................................................................... 140

Chapter 10

Wireless Security Screen.....................................................................................................143

10.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................143

10.1.1 What You Can Do in the Security Screen .............................................................. 143

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10.1.2 What You Need To Know About Wireless Security ................................................ 144

10.2 The Security Screen ........................................................................................................ 146

10.2.1 Security: WEP ........................................................................................................ 147

10.2.2 Security: 802.1x Only ............................................................................................. 149

10.2.3 Security: 802.1x Static 64-bit, 802.1x Static 128-bit ...............................................150

10.2.4 Security: WPA ........................................................................................................ 151

10.2.5 Security: WPA2 or WPA2-MIX ................................................................................ 152

10.2.6 Security: WPA-PSK, WPA2-PSK, WPA2-PSK-MIX ................................................ 154

10.3 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................155

Chapter 11

RADIUS Screen.....................................................................................................................157

11.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................157

11.1.1 What You Can Do in the RADIUS Screen .............................................................. 158

11.1.2 What You Need To Know About Wireless Security ................................................ 158

11.2 The RADIUS Screen ........................................................................................................159

Chapter 12

Layer-2 Isolation Screen ......................................................................................................161

12.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................161

12.1.1 What You Can Do in the Layer-2 Isolation Screen .................................................162

12.1.2 What You Need To Know About This Chapter ....................................................... 162

12.2 The Layer-2 Isolation Screen .......................................................................................... 163

12.2.1 Configuring Layer-2 Isolation ................................................................................. 164

12.3 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................165

Chapter 13

MAC Filter Screen.................................................................................................................167

13.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................167

13.1.1 What You Can Do in the MAC Filter Screen .......................................................... 167

13.1.2 What You Should Know About MAC Filter ............................................................. 167

13.2 The MAC Filter Screen .................................................................................................... 168

13.2.1 Configuring the MAC Filter ..................................................................................... 169

Chapter 14

IP Screen................................................................................................................................171

14.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................171

14.1.1 What You Can Do in the IP Screen ........................................................................ 171

14.1.2 What You Need To Know About IP ........................................................................ 171

14.2 The IP Screen .................................................................................................................. 172

14.3 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................173

14.3.1 WAN IP Address Assignment ................................................................................. 173

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Chapter 15

Rogue AP Detection .............................................................................................................175

15.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................175

15.1.1 What You Can Do in the Rogue AP Screen ...........................................................176

15.1.2 What You Need To Know About Rogue AP ............................................................ 176

15.2 Configuration Screen .......................................................................................................178

15.2.1 Friendly AP Screen ................................................................................................ 179

15.2.2 Rogue AP Screen .................................................................................................. 180

Chapter 16

Remote Management Screens.............................................................................................183

16.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................183

16.1.1 What You Can Do in the Remote Management Screens ....................................... 184

16.1.2 What You Need To Know About Remote Management ......................................... 184

16.2 The Telnet Screen ........................................................................................................... 186

16.3 The FTP Screen ..............................................................................................................187

16.4 The WWW Screen ........................................................................................................... 188

16.5 The SNMP Screen ...........................................................................................................190

16.6 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................192

16.6.1 MIB ......................................................................................................................... 192

16.6.2 Supported MIBs ..................................................................................................... 192

16.6.3 SNMP Traps ........................................................................................................... 192

Chapter 17

Internal RADIUS Server........................................................................................................195

17.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................195

17.1.1 What You Can Do in this Chapter .......................................................................... 196

17.1.2 What You Need To Know ....................................................................................... 196

17.2 Internal RADIUS Server Setting Screen .......................................................................... 196

17.3 The Trusted AP Screen ................................................................................................... 198

17.4 The Trusted Users Screen ............................................................................................... 199

17.5 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................200

Chapter 18

Certificates ............................................................................................................................203

18.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................203

18.1.1 What You Can Do in the Certificates Screen .........................................................203

18.1.2 What You Need To Know About Certificates .......................................................... 204

18.2 My Certificates Screen ....................................................................................................204

18.2.1 My Certificates Import Screen ................................................................................ 206

18.2.2 My Certificates Create Screen ............................................................................... 208

18.2.3 My Certificates Details Screen ................................................................................211

18.3 Trusted CAs Screen ........................................................................................................214

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18.3.1 Trusted CAs Import Screen .................................................................................... 215

18.3.2 Trusted CAs Details Screen ................................................................................... 216

18.4 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................219

18.4.1 Private-Public Certificates ...................................................................................... 219

18.4.2 Certification Authorities .......................................................................................... 219

18.4.3 Checking the Fingerprint of a Certificate ................................................................ 220

Chapter 19

Log Screens ..........................................................................................................................221

19.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................221

19.1.1 What You Can Do in the Log Screens .................................................................... 221

19.1.2 What You Need To Know About Logs .................................................................... 222

19.2 The View Log Screen ......................................................................................................222

19.3 The Log Settings Screen ................................................................................................. 224

19.4 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................226

19.4.1 Example Log Messages ......................................................................................... 226

19.4.2 Log Commands ......................................................................................................228

19.4.3 Configuring What You Want the NWA to Log ......................................................... 228

19.4.4 Displaying Logs ...................................................................................................... 228

19.4.5 Log Command Example ......................................................................................... 228

Chapter 20

VLAN......................................................................................................................................231

20.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................231

20.1.1 What You Can Do in the VLAN Screen .................................................................. 231

20.1.2 What You Need To Know About VLAN ................................................................... 232

20.2 Wireless VLAN Screen ....................................................................................................233

20.2.1 RADIUS VLAN Screen ........................................................................................... 235

20.3 Technical Reference ........................................................................................................236

20.3.1 VLAN Tagging ........................................................................................................ 236

20.3.2 Configuring Management VLAN Example ............................................................. 236

20.3.3 Configuring Microsoft’s IAS Server Example ......................................................... 239

20.3.3.1 Configuring VLAN Groups ..........................................................240

20.3.3.2 Configuring Remote Access Policies ..........................................241

20.3.4 Second Rx VLAN ID Example ................................................................................ 249

20.3.4.1 Second Rx VLAN Setup Example ..............................................249

Chapter 21

Load Balancing.....................................................................................................................253

21.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................253

21.1.1 What You Need to Know About Load Balancing ....................................................253

21.2 The Load Balancing Screen ............................................................................................ 255

21.2.1 Disassociating and Delaying Connections .............................................................256

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Chapter 22

Dynamic Channel Selection.................................................................................................259

22.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................259

22.2 The DCS Screen .............................................................................................................260

Chapter 23

Maintenance..........................................................................................................................263

23.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................263

23.1.1 What You Can Do in the Maintenance Screens .....................................................263

23.1.2 What You Need To Know ....................................................................................... 263

23.2 System Status Screen .....................................................................................................264

23.2.1 System Statistics Screen ........................................................................................ 265

23.3 Association List Screen ...................................................................................................266

23.4 Channel Usage Screen ................................................................................................... 267

23.5 F/W Upload Screen .........................................................................................................268

23.6 Configuration Screen .......................................................................................................270

23.6.1 Backup Configuration ............................................................................................. 270

23.6.2 Restore Configuration ........................................................................................... 271

23.6.3 Back to Factory Defaults ........................................................................................ 272

23.7 Restart Screen ................................................................................................................. 272

Chapter 24

Troubleshooting....................................................................................................................275

24.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................275

24.2 Power, Hardware Connections, and LEDs ...................................................................... 275

24.3 NWA Access and Login ................................................................................................... 276

24.4 Internet Access ................................................................................................................ 279

24.5 Wireless Router/AP Troubleshooting ...............................................................................280

Appendix A Product Specifications.......................................................................................281

Appendix B Wireless LANs ..................................................................................................285

Appendix C Pop-up Windows, JavaScripts and Java Permissions......................................301

Appendix D IP Addresses and Subnetting...........................................................................309

Appendix E Text File Based Auto Configuration...................................................................331

Appendix F How to Access and Use the CLI .......................................................................339

Appendix G Legal Information..............................................................................................345

Appendix H Customer Support.............................................................................................349

Index.......................................................................................................................................357

15

PART I

Introduction

Introduction (17)

The Web Configurator (31)

Tutorials (35)

16

NWA-3160 Series User’s Guide

17

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Note: The NWA-3160 Series includes the NWA-3160 and the NWA-3163. Illustrations

used throughout this book are based on the NWA-3163.

1.1 Overview

Your NWA extends the range of your existing wired network without additional

wiring, providing easy network access to mobile users.

It is highly versatile, featuring dual wireless modules and supporting up to sixteen

Basic Service Set Identifiers (BSSID) simultaneously. The Quality of Service (QoS)

features allow you to prioritize time-sensitive or highly important applications

such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

Multiple security profiles allow you to easily assign different types of security to

groups of users. The NWA controls network access with Media Access Control

(MAC) address filtering, rogue Access Point (AP) detection, layer 2 isolation and an

internal authentication server. It also provides a high level of network traffic

security, supporting Institute of Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802.1x, Wi-Fi

Protected Access (WPA), WPA2 and Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) data

encryption.

Your NWA is easy to install, configure and use. The embedded Web-based

configurator enables simple, straightforward management and maintenance.

See the Quick Start Guide for instructions on how to make hardware connections.

Chapter 1 Introduction

NWA-3160 Series User’s Guide

18

1.2 Applications for the NWA

The NWA can be configured to use the following WLAN operating modes

• Access Point

•Bridge / Repeater

•AP + Bridge

•MBSSID

Applications for each operating mode are shown below.

Note: A different channel should be configured for each WLAN interface to reduce the

effects of radio interference.

1.2.1 Access Point

The NWA is an ideal access solution for wireless Internet connection. A typical

Internet access application for your NWA is shown as follows. Stations A, B and C

can access the wired network through the NWAs.

Figure 1 Access Point Application

AP1

AP2

BSS1

A

B

BSS2

Chapter 1 Introduction

NWA-3160 Series User’s Guide

19

1.2.2 Bridge / Repeater

The NWA can act as a wireless network bridge and establish wireless links with

other APs. In the figure below, the two NWAs (A and B) are connected to

independent wired networks and have a bridge connection (A can communicate

with B) at the same time. A NWA in repeater mode (C) has no Ethernet

connection. When the NWA is in bridge mode, you should enable Spanning Tree

Protocol (STP) to prevent bridge loops.

When the NWA is in Bridge / Repeater mode, security between APs (the Wireless

Distribution System or WDS) is independent of the security between the wireless

stations and the AP. If you do not enable WDS security, traffic between APs is not

encrypted. When WDS security is enabled, both APs must use the same pre-

shared key. See Section 8.2.2 on page 118 for more details.

Once the security settings of peer sides match one another, the connection

between devices is made.

At the time of writing, WDS security is compatible with other ZyXEL access points

only. Refer to your other access point’s documentation for details.

Figure 2 Bridge Application

Chapter 1 Introduction

NWA-3160 Series User’s Guide

20

Figure 3 Repeater Application

1.2.2.1 Bridge / Repeater Mode Example

In the example below, when both NWAs are in Bridge/Repeater mode, they form a

WDS (Wireless Distribution System) allowing the computers in LAN 1 to connect to

the computers in LAN 2.

Figure 4 Bridging Example

Be careful to avoid bridge loops when you enable bridging in the NWA. Bridge

loops cause broadcast traffic to circle the network endlessly, resulting in possible

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